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Abstract
In shared memory multiprocessor architectures, such as SMPs, threads can be used to implement parallelism. Historically, hardware vendors have implemented their own proprietary versions of threads, making portability a concern for software developers. For UNIX systems, a standardized C language threads programming interface has been specified by the IEEE POSIX 1003.1c standard. Implementations that adhere to this standard are referred to as POSIX threads, or Pthreads.
The tutorial begins with an introduction to concepts, motivations, and design considerations for using Pthreads. Each of the three major classes of routines in the Pthreads API are then covered: Thread Management, Mutex Variables, and Condition Variables. Example codes are used throughout to demonstrate how to use most of the Pthreads routines needed by a new Pthreads programmer. The tutorial concludes with a discussion of LLNL specifics and how to mix MPI with pthreads. A lab exercise, with numerous example codes (C Language) is also included.
Level/Prerequisites: Ideal for those who are new to parallel programming with threads. A basic understanding of parallel programming in C is assumed. For those who are unfamiliar with Parallel Programming in general, the material covered in would be helpful.
Pthreads Overview
What is a Thread?
- Technically, a thread is defined as an independent stream of instructions that can be scheduled to run as such by the operating system. But what does this mean?
- To the software developer, the concept of a "procedure" that runs independently from its main program may best describe a thread.
- To go one step further, imagine a main program (a.out) that contains a number of procedures. Then imagine all of these procedures being able to be scheduled to run simultaneously and/or independently by the operating system. That would describe a "multi-threaded" program.
- How is this accomplished?
Pthreads Overview
What are Pthreads?
- Historically, hardware vendors have implemented their own proprietary versions of threads. These implementations differed substantially from each other making it difficult for programmers to develop portable threaded applications.
- In order to take full advantage of the capabilities provided by threads, a standardized programming interface was required.
- For UNIX systems, this interface has been specified by the IEEE POSIX 1003.1c standard (1995).
- Implementations adhering to this standard are referred to as POSIX threads, or Pthreads.
- Most hardware vendors now offer Pthreads in addition to their proprietary API's.
- The POSIX standard has continued to evolve and undergo revisions, including the Pthreads specification. The latest version is known as IEEE Std 1003.1, 2004 Edition.
- Some useful links:
- POSIX FAQs:
- Download the Standard:
- Pthreads are defined as a set of C language programming types and procedure calls, implemented with a pthread.h header/include file and a thread library - though this library may be part of another library, such as libc, in some implementations.
Pthreads Overview
Why Pthreads?
- The primary motivation for using Pthreads is to realize potential program performance gains.
- When compared to the cost of creating and managing a process, a thread can be created with much less operating system overhead. Managing threads requires fewer system resources than managing processes.
For example, the following table compares timing results for the fork() subroutine and the pthreads_create() subroutine. Timings reflect 50,000 process/thread creations, were performed with the time utility, and units are in seconds, no optimization flags.
Note: don't expect the sytem and user times to add up to real time, because these are SMP systems with multiple CPUs working on the problem at the same time. At best, these are approximations run on local machines, past and present.
Platform
fork()
pthread_create()
real
user
sys
real
user
sys
AMD 2.3 GHz Opteron (16cpus/node)
12.5
1.0
12.5
1.2
0.2
1.3
AMD 2.4 GHz Opteron (8cpus/node)
17.6
2.2
15.7
1.4
0.3
1.3
IBM 4.0 GHz POWER6 (8cpus/node)
9.5
0.6
8.8
1.6
0.1
0.4
IBM 1.9 GHz POWER5 p5-575 (8cpus/node)
64.2
30.7
27.6
1.7
0.6
1.1
IBM 1.5 GHz POWER4 (8cpus/node)
104.5
48.6
47.2
2.1
1.0
1.5
INTEL 2.4 GHz Xeon (2 cpus/node)
54.9
1.5
20.8
1.6
0.7
0.9
INTEL 1.4 GHz Itanium2 (4 cpus/node)
54.5
1.1
22.2
2.0
1.2
0.6
fork_vs_thread.txt
- All threads within a process share the same address space. Inter-thread communication is more efficient and in many cases, easier to use than inter-process communication.
- Threaded applications offer potential performance gains and practical advantages over non-threaded applications in several other ways:
- Overlapping CPU work with I/O: For example, a program may have sections where it is performing a long I/O operation. While one thread is waiting for an I/O system call to complete, CPU intensive work can be performed by other threads.
- Priority/real-time scheduling: tasks which are more important can be scheduled to supersede or interrupt lower priority tasks.
- Asynchronous event handling: tasks which service events of indeterminate frequency and duration can be interleaved. For example, a web server can both transfer data from previous requests and manage the arrival of new requests.
- The primary motivation for considering the use of Pthreads on an SMP architecture is to achieve optimum performance. In particular, if an application is using MPI for on-node communications, there is a potential that performance could be greatly improved by using Pthreads for on-node data transfer instead.
- For example:
- MPI libraries usually implement on-node task communication via shared memory, which involves at least one memory copy operation (process to process).
- For Pthreads there is no intermediate memory copy required because threads share the same address space within a single process. There is no data transfer, per se. It becomes more of a cache-to-CPU or memory-to-CPU bandwidth (worst case) situation. These speeds are much higher.
- Some local comparisons are shown below:
Platform
MPI Shared Memory Bandwidth
(GB/sec)
Pthreads Worst Case
Memory-to-CPU Bandwidth
(GB/sec)
AMD 2.3 GHz Opteron
1.8
5.3
AMD 2.4 GHz Opteron
1.2
5.3
IBM 1.9 GHz POWER5 p5-575
4.1
16
IBM 1.5 GHz POWER4
2.1
4
Intel 2.4 GHz Xeon
0.3
4.3
Intel 1.4 GHz Itanium 2
1.8
6.4
Pthreads Overview
Designing Threaded Programs
Parallel Programming:
- On modern, multi-cpu machines, pthreads are ideally suited for parallel programming, and whatever applies to parallel programming in general, applies to parallel pthreads programs.
- There are many considerations for designing parallel programs, such as:
- What type of parallel programming model to use?
- Problem partitioning
- Load balancing
- Communications
- Data dependencies
- Synchronization and race conditions
- Memory issues
- I/O issues
- Program complexity
- Programmer effort/costs/time
- ...
- Covering these topics is beyond the scope of this tutorial, however interested readers can obtain a quick overview in the tutorial.
- In general though, in order for a program to take advantage of Pthreads, it must be able to be organized into discrete, independent tasks which can execute concurrently. For example, if routine1 and routine2 can be interchanged, interleaved and/or overlapped in real time, they are candidates for threading.
- Programs having the following characteristics may be well suited for pthreads:
- Work that can be executed, or data that can be operated on, by multiple tasks simultaneously
- Block for potentially long I/O waits
- Use many CPU cycles in some places but not others
- Must respond to asynchronous events
- Some work is more important than other work (priority interrupts)
- Pthreads can also be used for serial applications, to emulate parallel execution. A perfect example is the typical web browser, which for most people, runs on a single cpu desktop/laptop machine. Many things can "appear" to be happening at the same time.
- Several common models for threaded programs exist:
- Manager/worker: a single thread, the manager assigns work to other threads, the workers. Typically, the manager handles all input and parcels out work to the other tasks. At least two forms of the manager/worker model are common: static worker pool and dynamic worker pool.
- Pipeline: a task is broken into a series of suboperations, each of which is handled in series, but concurrently, by a different thread. An automobile assembly line best describes this model.
- Peer: similar to the manager/worker model, but after the main thread creates other threads, it participates in the work.
Shared Memory Model:
- All threads have access to the same global, shared memory
- Threads also have their own private data
- Programmers are responsible for synchronizing access (protecting) globally shared data.
Thread-safeness:
- Thread-safeness: in a nutshell, refers an application's ability to execute multiple threads simultaneously without "clobbering" shared data or creating "race" conditions.
- For example, suppose that your application creates several threads, each of which makes a call to the same library routine:
- This library routine accesses/modifies a global structure or location in memory.
- As each thread calls this routine it is possible that they may try to modify this global structure/memory location at the same time.
- If the routine does not employ some sort of synchronization constructs to prevent data corruption, then it is not thread-safe.
- The implication to users of external library routines is that if you aren't 100% certain the routine is thread-safe, then you take your chances with problems that could arise.
- Recommendation: Be careful if your application uses libraries or other objects that don't explicitly guarantee thread-safeness. When in doubt, assume that they are not thread-safe until proven otherwise. This can be done by "serializing" the calls to the uncertain routine, etc.
The Pthreads API
- The original Pthreads API was defined in the ANSI/IEEE POSIX 1003.1 - 1995 standard. The POSIX standard has continued to evolve and undergo revisions, including the Pthreads specification. The latest version is known as IEEE Std 1003.1, 2004 Edition.
- Copies of the standard can be purchased from IEEE or downloaded for free from .
- The subroutines which comprise the Pthreads API can be informally grouped into four major groups:
- Thread management: Routines that work directly on threads - creating, detaching, joining, etc. They also include functions to set/query thread attributes (joinable, scheduling etc.)
- Mutexes: Routines that deal with synchronization, called a "mutex", which is an abbreviation for "mutual exclusion". Mutex functions provide for creating, destroying, locking and unlocking mutexes. These are supplemented by mutex attribute functions that set or modify attributes associated with mutexes.
- Condition variables: Routines that address communications between threads that share a mutex. Based upon programmer specified conditions. This group includes functions to create, destroy, wait and signal based upon specified variable values. Functions to set/query condition variable attributes are also included.
- Synchronization: Routines that manage read/write locks and barriers.
- Naming conventions: All identifiers in the threads library begin with pthread_. Some examples are shown below.
Routine Prefix
Functional Group
pthread_
Threads themselves and miscellaneous subroutines
pthread_attr_
Thread attributes objects
pthread_mutex_
Mutexes
pthread_mutexattr_
Mutex attributes objects.
pthread_cond_
Condition variables
pthread_condattr_
Condition attributes objects
pthread_key_
Thread-specific data keys
pthread_rwlock_
Read/write locks
pthread_barrier_
Synchronization barriers
- The concept of opaque objects pervades the design of the API. The basic calls work to create or modify opaque objects - the opaque objects can be modified by calls to attribute functions, which deal with opaque attributes.
- The Pthreads API contains around 100 subroutines. This tutorial will focus on a subset of these - specifically, those which are most likely to be immediately useful to the beginning Pthreads programmer.
- For portability, the pthread.h header file should be included in each source file using the Pthreads library.
- The current POSIX standard is defined only for the C language. Fortran programmers can use wrappers around C function calls. Some Fortran compilers (like IBM AIX Fortran) may provide a Fortram pthreads API.
- A number of excellent books about Pthreads are available. Several of these are listed in the section of this tutorial.
Compiling Threaded Programs
- Several examples of compile commands used for pthreads codes are listed in the table below.
Compiler / Platform
Compiler Command
Description
IBM
AIX
xlc_r / cc_r
C (ANSI / non-ANSI)
xlC_r
C++
xlf_r -qnosave
xlf90_r -qnosave
Fortran - using IBM's Pthreads API (non-portable)
INTEL
Linux
icc -pthread
C
icpc -pthread
C++
PathScale
Linux
pathcc -pthread
C
pathCC -pthread
C++
PGI
Linux
pgcc -lpthread
C
pgCC -lpthread
C++
GNU
Linux, AIX
gcc -pthread
GNU C
g++ -pthread
GNU C++
Thread Management
Creating and Terminating Threads
Routines:
(thread,attr,start_routine,arg)
(status)
(attr)
(attr)
Creating Threads:
- Initially, your main() program comprises a single, default thread. All other threads must be explicitly created by the programmer.
- pthread_create creates a new thread and makes it executable. This routine can be called any number of times from anywhere within your code.
- pthread_create arguments:
- thread: An opaque, unique identifier for the new thread returned by the subroutine.
- attr: An opaque attribute object that may be used to set thread attributes. You can specify a thread attributes object, or NULL for the default values.
- start_routine: the C routine that the thread will execute once it is created.
- arg: A single argument that may be passed to start_routine. It must be passed by reference as a pointer cast of type void. NULL may be used if no argument is to be passed.
- The maximum number of threads that may be created by a process is implementation dependent.
- Once created, threads are peers, and may create other threads. There is no implied hierarchy or dependency between threads.
Question: After a thread has been created, how do you know when it will be scheduled to run by the operating system?
Thread Attributes:
- By default, a thread is created with certain attributes. Some of these attributes can be changed by the programmer via the thread attribute object.
- pthread_attr_init and pthread_attr_destroy are used to initialize/destroy the thread attribute object.
- Other routines are then used to query/set specific attributes in the thread attribute object.
- Some of these attributes will be discussed later.
Terminating Threads:
- There are several ways in which a Pthread may be terminated:
- The thread returns from its starting routine (the main routine for the initial thread).
- The thread makes a call to the pthread_exit subroutine (covered below).
- The thread is canceled by another thread via the pthread_cancel routine (not covered here).
- The entire process is terminated due to a call to either the exec or exit subroutines.
- pthread_exit is used to explicitly exit a thread. Typically, the pthread_exit() routine is called after a thread has completed its work and is no longer required to exist.
- If main() finishes before the threads it has created, and exits with pthread_exit(), the other threads will continue to execute. Otherwise, they will be automatically terminated when main() finishes.
- The programmer may optionally specify a termination status, which is stored as a void pointer for any thread that may join the calling thread.
- Cleanup: the pthread_exit() routine does not close files; any files opened inside the thread will remain open after the thread is terminated.
- Discussion: In subroutines that execute to completion normally, you can often dispense with calling pthread_exit() - unless, of course, you want to pass a return code back. However, in main(), there is a definite problem if main() completes before the threads it spawned. If you don't call pthread_exit() explicitly, when main() completes, the process (and all threads) will be terminated. By calling pthread_exit() in main(), the process and all of its threads will be kept alive even though all of the code in main() has been executed.
Example: Pthread Creation and Termination
Thread Management
Passing Arguments to Threads
- The pthread_create() routine permits the programmer to pass one argument to the thread start routine. For cases where multiple arguments must be passed, this limitation is easily overcome by creating a structure which contains all of the arguments, and then passing a pointer to that structure in the pthread_create() routine.
- All arguments must be passed by reference and cast to (void *).
Question: How can you safely pass data to newly created threads, given their non-deterministic start-up and scheduling?
long *taskids[NUM_THREADS];
for(t=0; t 
Example 2 - Thread Argument Passing
This example shows how to setup/pass multiple arguments via a structure. Each thread receives a unique instance of the structure.
struct thread_data{
int thread_id;
int sum;
char *message;
};
struct thread_data thread_data_array[NUM_THREADS];
void *PrintHello(void *threadarg)
{
struct thread_data *my_data;
...
my_data = (struct thread_data *) threadarg;
taskid = my_data->thread_id;
sum = my_data->sum;
hello_msg = my_data->message;
...
}
int main (int argc, char *argv[])
{
...
thread_data_array[t].thread_id = t;
thread_data_array[t].sum = sum;
thread_data_array[t].message = messages[t];
rc = pthread_create(&threads[t], NULL, PrintHello,
(void *) &thread_data_array[t]);
...
}
Example 3 - Thread Argument Passing (Incorrect)
This example performs argument passing incorrectly. It passes the address of variable t, which is shared memory space and visible to all threads. As the loop iterates, the value of this memory location changes, possibly before the created threads can access it.
int rc;
long t;
for(t=0; t
Thread Management
Joining and Detaching Threads
Routines:
(threadid,status)
(threadid)
(attr,detachstate)
(attr,detachstate)
Joining:
- "Joining" is one way to accomplish synchronization between threads. For example:
- The pthread_join() subroutine blocks the calling thread until the specified threadid thread terminates.
- The programmer is able to obtain the target thread's termination return status if it was specified in the target thread's call to pthread_exit().
- A joining thread can match one pthread_join() call. It is a logical error to attempt multiple joins on the same thread.
- Two other synchronization methods, mutexes and condition variables, will be discussed later.
Joinable or Not?
- When a thread is created, one of its attributes defines whether it is joinable or detached. Only threads that are created as joinable can be joined. If a thread is created as detached, it can never be joined.
- The final draft of the POSIX standard specifies that threads should be created as joinable.
- To explicitly create a thread as joinable or detached, the attr argument in the pthread_create() routine is used. The typical 4 step process is:
- Declare a pthread attribute variable of the pthread_attr_t data type
- Initialize the attribute variable with pthread_attr_init()
- Set the attribute detached status with pthread_attr_setdetachstate()
- When done, free library resources used by the attribute with pthread_attr_destroy()
Detaching:
- The pthread_detach() routine can be used to explicitly detach a thread even though it was created as joinable.
- There is no converse routine.
Recommendations:
- If a thread requires joining, consider explicitly creating it as joinable. This provides portability as not all implementations may create threads as joinable by default.
- If you know in advance that a thread will never need to join with another thread, consider creating it in a detached state. Some system resources may be able to be freed.
Example: Pthread Joining
#include
#include
#include
#define NUM_THREADS 4
void *BusyWork(void *t)
{
int i;
long tid;
double result=0.0;
tid = (long)t;
printf("Thread %ld starting...\n",tid);
for (i=0; i<1000000; i++)
{
result = result + sin(i) * tan(i);
}
printf("Thread %ld done. Result = %e\n",tid, result);
pthread_exit((void*) t);
}
int main (int argc, char *argv[])
{
pthread_t thread[NUM_THREADS];
pthread_attr_t attr;
int rc;
long t;
void *status;
/* Initialize and set thread detached attribute */
pthread_attr_init(&attr);
pthread_attr_setdetachstate(&attr, PTHREAD_CREATE_JOINABLE);
for(t=0; t
Thread Management
Stack Management
Routines:
(attr, stacksize)
(attr, stacksize)
(attr, stackaddr)
(attr, stackaddr)
Preventing Stack Problems:
- The POSIX standard does not dictate the size of a thread's stack. This is implementation dependent and varies.
- Exceeding the default stack limit is often very easy to do, with the usual results: program termination and/or corrupted data.
- Safe and portable programs do not depend upon the default stack limit, but instead, explicitly allocate enough stack for each thread by using the pthread_attr_setstacksize routine.
- The pthread_attr_getstackaddr and pthread_attr_setstackaddr routines can be used by applications in an environment where the stack for a thread must be placed in some particular region of memory.
Some Practical Examples at LC:
Example: Stack Management
#include
#include
#define NTHREADS 4
#define N 1000
#define MEGEXTRA 1000000
pthread_attr_t attr;
void *dowork(void *threadid)
{
double A[N][N];
int i,j;
long tid;
size_t mystacksize;
tid = (long)threadid;
pthread_attr_getstacksize (&attr, &mystacksize);
printf("Thread %ld: stack size = %li bytes \n", tid, mystacksize);
for (i=0; i
Thread Management
Miscellaneous Routines
Mutex Variables
Overview
Mutex Variables
Creating and Destroying Mutexes
Routines:
(mutex,attr)
(mutex)
(attr)
(attr)
Usage:
Mutex Variables
Locking and Unlocking Mutexes
Routines:
Usage:
Question: When more than one thread is waiting for a locked mutex, which thread will be granted the lock first after it is released?
Example: Using Mutexes
#include
#include
#include
/*
The following structure contains the necessary information
to allow the function "dotprod" to access its input data and
place its output into the structure.
*/
typedef struct
{
double *a;
double *b;
double sum;
int veclen;
} DOTDATA;
/* Define globally accessible variables and a mutex */
#define NUMTHRDS 4
#define VECLEN 100
DOTDATA dotstr;
pthread_t callThd[NUMTHRDS];
pthread_mutex_t mutexsum;
/*
The function dotprod is activated when the thread is created.
All input to this routine is obtained from a structure
of type DOTDATA and all output from this function is written into
this structure. The benefit of this approach is apparent for the
multi-threaded program: when a thread is created we pass a single
argument to the activated function - typically this argument
is a thread number. All the other information required by the
function is accessed from the globally accessible structure.
*/
void *dotprod(void *arg)
{
/* Define and use local variables for convenience */
int i, start, end, len ;
long offset;
double mysum, *x, *y;
offset = (long)arg;
len = dotstr.veclen;
start = offset*len;
end = start + len;
x = dotstr.a;
y = dotstr.b;
/*
Perform the dot product and assign result
to the appropriate variable in the structure.
*/
mysum = 0;
for (i=start; i Serial version
Pthreads version
Condition Variables
Overview
- Condition variables provide yet another way for threads to synchronize. While mutexes implement synchronization by controlling thread access to data, condition variables allow threads to synchronize based upon the actual value of data.
- Without condition variables, the programmer would need to have threads continually polling (possibly in a critical section), to check if the condition is met. This can be very resource consuming since the thread would be continuously busy in this activity. A condition variable is a way to achieve the same goal without polling.
- A condition variable is always used in conjunction with a mutex lock.
- A representative sequence for using condition variables is shown below.
Main Thread
- Declare and initialize global data/variables which require synchronization (such as "count")
- Declare and initialize a condition variable object
- Declare and initialize an associated mutex
- Create threads A and B to do work
Thread A
- Do work up to the point where a certain condition must occur (such as "count" must reach a specified value)
- Lock associated mutex and check value of a global variable
- Call pthread_cond_wait() to perform a blocking wait for signal from Thread-B. Note that a call to pthread_cond_wait() automatically and atomically unlocks the associated mutex variable so that it can be used by Thread-B.
- When signalled, wake up. Mutex is automatically and atomically locked.
- Explicitly unlock mutex
- Continue
Thread B
- Do work
- Lock associated mutex
- Change the value of the global variable that Thread-A is waiting upon.
- Check value of the global Thread-A wait variable. If it fulfills the desired condition, signal Thread-A.
- Unlock mutex.
- Continue
Main Thread
Condition Variables
Creating and Destroying Condition Variables
Routines:
(condition,attr)
(condition)
(attr)
(attr)
Usage:
Condition Variables
Waiting and Signaling on Condition Variables
Routines:
(condition,mutex)
(condition)
(condition)
Usage:
- pthread_cond_wait() blocks the calling thread until the specified condition is signalled. This routine should be called while mutex is locked, and it will automatically release the mutex while it waits. After signal is received and thread is awakened, mutex will be automatically locked for use by the thread. The programmer is then responsible for unlocking mutex when the thread is finished with it.
- The pthread_cond_signal() routine is used to signal (or wake up) another thread which is waiting on the condition variable. It should be called after mutex is locked, and must unlock mutex in order for pthread_cond_wait() routine to complete.
- The pthread_cond_broadcast() routine should be used instead of pthread_cond_signal() if more than one thread is in a blocking wait state.
- It is a logical error to call pthread_cond_signal() before calling pthread_cond_wait().
Proper locking and unlocking of the associated mutex variable is essential when using these routines. For example:
- Failing to lock the mutex before calling pthread_cond_wait() may cause it NOT to block.
- Failing to unlock the mutex after calling pthread_cond_signal() may not allow a matching pthread_cond_wait() routine to complete (it will remain blocked).
Example: Using Condition Variables
#include
#include
#include
#define NUM_THREADS 3
#define TCOUNT 10
#define COUNT_LIMIT 12
int count = 0;
int thread_ids[3] = {0,1,2};
pthread_mutex_t count_mutex;
pthread_cond_t count_threshold_cv;
void *inc_count(void *t)
{
int i;
long my_id = (long)t;
for (i=0; i
LLNL Specific Information and Recommendations
This section describes details specific to Livermore Computing's systems.
Implementations:
- All LC production systems include a Pthreads implementation that follows draft 10 (final) of the POSIX standard. This is the preferred implementation.
- Implementations differ in the maximum number of threads that a process may create. They also differ in the default amount of thread stack space.
Compiling:
- LC maintains a number of compilers, and usually several different versions of each - see the web page.
- The compiler commands described in the section apply to LC systems.
- Additionally, all LC IBM compilers are aliased to their thread-safe command. For example, xlc really uses xlc_r. This is only true for LC IBM systems.
Mixing MPI with Pthreads:
- Programs that contain both MPI and Pthreads are common and easy to develop on all LC systems.
- Design:
- Each MPI process typically creates and then manages N threads, where N makes the best use of the available CPUs/node.
- Finding the best value for N will vary with the platform and your application's characteristics.
- For IBM SP systems with two communication adapters per node, it may prove more efficient to use two (or more) MPI tasks per node.
- In general, there may be problems if multiple threads make MPI calls. The program may fail or behave unexpectedly. If MPI calls must be made from within a thread, they should be made only by one thread.
- Compiling:
- Use the appropriate MPI compile command for the platform and language of choice
- Be sure to include the required flag as in the table above (-pthread or -qnosave)
- MPICH is not thread safe
- An example code that uses both MPI and Pthreads is available below. The serial, threads-only, MPI-only and MPI-with-threads versions demonstrate one possible progression.
Topics Not Covered
Several features of the Pthreads API are not covered in this tutorial. These are listed below. See the section for more information.
- Thread Scheduling
- Implementations will differ on how threads are scheduled to run. In most cases, the default mechanism is adequate.
- The Pthreads API provides routines to explicitly set thread scheduling policies and priorities which may override the default mechanisms.
- The API does not require implementations to support these features.
- Keys: Thread-Specific Data
- As threads call and return from different routines, the local data on a thread's stack comes and goes.
- To preserve stack data you can usually pass it as an argument from one routine to the next, or else store the data in a global variable associated with a thread.
- Pthreads provides another, possibly more convenient and versatile, way of accomplishing this through keys.
- Mutex Protocol Attributes and Mutex Priority Management for the handling of "priority inversion" problems.
- Condition Variable Sharing - across processes
- Thread Cancellation
- Threads and Signals
- Synchronization constructs - barriers and locks
Pthread Library Routines Reference
This completes the tutorial.
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